TNF and neurodegenerative disease: Activation of astrocytes and microglias result in the production of major proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, or IL-1β) and neurotoxic factors (reactive oxidative species and tumor necrosis factor-α), which are typically associated with neurodegenerative diseases including AD (Lull and Block, 2010; Calabrese et al., 2011a).