ALB and systemic lupus erythematosus: Multivariate logistic regression analysis further identified previous and current smoking along with elevated serum levels of chloride, globulin, lactate dehydrogenase, uric acid, cholesterol, and lutein or zeaxanthin as risk factors; while protective factors against lupus included non-white race, obesity, elevated serum levels of bicarbonate, creatinine, total calcium, and vitamin B12, as well as elevated urinary albumin and iodine.