GDF15 and hepatocellular carcinoma: Findings for hepatocellular carcinoma also include pro-apoptotic/anti-tumor effects of GDF-15, whereby GDF-15 has been linked to inhibition of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, upregulation of Bax, activation of pro-caspase 3, 8, and 9, and PARP (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase) cleavage (162–164).