TGF-β acts as a pro-fibrogenic factor stimulating HSC activation and liver fibrosis.25 In TGF-β signalling pathway, TGF-β binds to a heterodimer of TGF-β type II and TGFβRI receptors, and activates the phosphorylation of the downstream Smad proteins, which are subsequently imported into the nucleus to regulate downstream gene expression.26 As analysed by RT-qPCR and western blotting assays, the expression of fibrotic markers increased after TGF-β treatment in LX2 cells, confirming the effective treatment of TGF-β on HSCs (Fig. 5e, f). The gene discussed is TGFB1; the disease is Hepatic fibrosis.