Studies in malaria-endemic regions have found that it is important to have a balance between a host pro-inflammatory, Th1 response (e.g., TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-12, and interferon-gamma) and anti-inflammatory, Th2 response (IL-4, IL-10, and others)29,30; severe manifestations of malaria are often due to excessive pro-inflammatory responses. Here, TNF is linked to malaria.