TNF and type 2 diabetes mellitus: In human obese and T2D patients, evidence has shown that several inflammatory markers are elevated, including white blood cell counts and plasma levels of coagulation factors (PAI-1 and fibrinogen), acute-phase proteins (C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A), pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6), as well as proinflammatory chemokines (Pickup et al., 1997; Yudkin et al., 1999; Bastard et al., 2000; Haffner et al., 2005; Bruun et al., 2006; Belalcazar et al., 2013; Esser et al., 2014).