DMD and Duchenne muscular dystrophy: For DMD, two main hypotheses have been advanced: (1) membrane fragility or damage leading to membrane tear or rupture that facilitates abnormal calcium influx, as indirectly demonstrated by treating DMD cells with membrane sealants (i.e., Polaxamer 188) (Yasuda et al., 2005); (2) altered ion channel function and dysregulation of calcium homeostasis as a direct consequence of the altered dystrophin complex (Zhan et al., 2014).