TGFB1 and infection: The fact that E/S products from E. multilocularis metacestodes can induce IL-10-secreting and Foxp3+ T-cells, which themselves might produce or convey to other immune cells the ability to produce immunosuppressive cytokines like TGF-β and IL-10 (66, 67), could explain the high doses of these cytokines found in parasite vicinity during AE infections (10, 11, 53).