TNF and influenza: Elements supporting a role of anti-TNF-α are the evidence of elevated TNF-α levels in patients with severe Covid-19 [158], and the biologic effects of anti-TNF-α therapy, which include a rapid decrease in both IL-1 and IL-6 levels [169], as well as the observation in preclinical model that anti-TNFs ameliorate the course of severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza in mice [170].