TNF and infection: Infection with Mtb in the post-drug relapse phase, however, was associated with pulmonary activation of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that have established roles in enhancing HIV replication including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and CCL-2 (Swingler et al., 1994; Kumar et al., 2013; Nou et al., 2016; Pasquereau et al., 2017).