TNF and infection: On the one hand, Pv microscopic but not submicroscopic infections were associated with elevated plasma concentrations of proinflammatory biomarkers TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, CXCL8, CCL2, CXCL10, CXCL9; the antiinflammatory IL-10 and IL-1RA; the chemokine CCL5; the TH1-related cytokine IL-2R; the TH2-related cytokine IL-5; the TH17-related cytokine IL-17 and the growth factors VEGF and GM-CSF (Table 4).