For instance, pro-inflammatory metabolites (such as NO-related molecules), cytokines (including IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-5, IL-8, G-CSF, and MIP-1b), and markers of endothelial dysfunction (e.g., homocysteine) were found to be increased in VaD patients [11,16,51,52,53]. Here, TNF is linked to endothelial dysfunction.