In addition, a plethora of studies in rodent models of diabetes suggest that both glucose neurotoxicity and deficient insulin signaling impair brain structure and function leading to behavioral and cognitive alterations (e.g., Duarte et al., 2012a, 2019; Calvo-Ochoa et al., 2014; Girault et al., 2019; Lizarbe et al., 2019b). This evidence concerns the gene INS and diabetes mellitus.