MAPK3 and cancer: The strong effect of EDI on gene regulation and thus cardiac remodeling as well as cancer cell proliferation may be due to direct or indirect activation of nuclear transcription factors by ERK1/2, but also kinase-independent ERK1/2 effects such as a direct binding of ERK to oligonucleotides, as shown for ERK2, activated ERK2, and ERK2T188D (ref. 52).