TP53 and carcinoma: Multiple human studies demonstrated that AA induces mutations in the tumor suppressor gene p53 through the signature A: T to T: A transversion, which contributes to the overexpression of mutated p53 protein and carcinoma formation in the urinary tract.[78,79] A mouse model knocked-in with human p53 (Hupki) was used to evaluate the role of p53 in the carcinogenicity of AA.[80] Primary Hupki embryonic fibroblast cells were exposed to 100 μM AAI for 48 h and passaged for 8–10 weeks.