To distinguish these possibilities, we used Ag-specific tetramers to examine responses to Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) Ags and to tetanus toxoid (TT) in two groups of adults in Kilifi, Kenya: (a) adults with previously high exposure, but no longer exposed to malaria, and (b) adults with continuous high exposure to malaria transmission, to enable us to independently examine the effects of Ag exposure and bystander inflammatory responses associated with persisting high exposure on the formation of aMBCs. The gene discussed is RENBP; the disease is malaria.