GDF15 and atherosclerosis: The results from previous studies have shown that increased circulating GDF15 levels were closely associated with the development and progression of various cardiovascular diseases (including myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion, heart failure, atherosclerosis, and acute coronary syndrome), and were shown to be a strong and independent predictor of mortality and disease progression in patients with atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease [5–10, 31–36].