TNF and brain ischemia: After cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, various cytokines such as IL-1, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and endotoxins can upregulate the expression of ICAM-1 and promote the strong adhesion to, and activation of, lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes to endothelial cells (Li W. et al., 2017).