HP and inflammatory bowel disease: It has been shown that serum zonulin levels are increased in patients with IBD compared to healthy controls [8] (while no studies are present in the literature comparing levels in patients with IBD and levels in patients with gastrointestinal symptoms without clear inflammation, like patients affected by irritable bowel symptoms (IBS)) and are associated with higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) and interleukin (IL)-6 [9], which play a key role in promoting mucosal inflammation [10].