VIP and colitis: Massa et al. (124) stated that Trpv1−/− mice exhibited a worse outcome of colitis and lower expression of anti-inflammatory neuropeptides, such as vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), while the NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways were demonstrated to be enhanced (130).