The complexity of E2 function and its dependency on local ER expression are further emphasized in our previous study with laryngeal cancer cell lines, in which we found E2 exhibited either a protective effect inhibiting DNA synthesis, or a deleterious effect augmenting proliferation and conferring anti-apoptotic potential to the cancer cells in a manner specific to the ER profile in each cell line21. Here, ESR1 is linked to laryngeal carcinoma.