TGFB1 and neoplasm: Furthermore, transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling has been shown to cause resistance to ICI, and inhibition of TGFβ signaling in combination with ICI led to greater tumor regression, as opposed to ICI alone in mouse models, by inhibiting the cancer-associated fibroblast, and increasing the accessibility of cancer cells to T cells [153,154] (Figure 3D).