In reference to the immunomodulatory role of LL-37, P. bovis upregulated mRNA expression of TNF-α, Cxcl-1, and IL-1β in murine phagocytic J774.A1 cells (at 2 and 8 h post-infection), whereas co-stimulation with LL-37 decreased concentrations of TNF-α, Cxcl-1, and IL-1β mRNA expression (p < 0.05, Figures 6A–C). Here, TNF is linked to infection.