TNF and Parkinson disease: Neurodegeneration in PD is associated with the activation of microglia (Heneka et al., 2015), increased TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels in the midbrain, serum and cerebral spinal fluid (Hofmann et al., 2009; Montgomery and Bowers, 2012) and activation of astrocytes (Wang et al., 2015).