TNF and acute respiratory distress syndrome: The pretreatment of methanol extract of SP leaves partially attenuated the inflammatory responses and oxidative stress by blocking the activation of NF-κB/MAPK pathways (Figure 4 and Figure 7) and by activating Nrf2 pathways (Figure 5 and Figure 8) in the LPS-induced ALI model and TNF-α-stimulated NCI-H292 cells, although SP could not completely restore the airway inflammation and oxidative stress that are induced by LPS or TNF-α.