TNF and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Similar results have been reported in human studies, in that monocytes from type 2 diabetic (T2D) patients displayed significantly higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1 compared to monocytes from a healthy control group; however, treatment with 1α,25 (OH)2D3 suppressed the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines [120].