These studies also highlighted the impact of the intervention on pro-inflammatory responses associated with the infection (e.g., impact on cytokine levels including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1beta, reduction of the pro-inflammatory recruitment of blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes) and on protecting the integrity of the first line of immune defense (e.g., attenuation of bacteremia-induced reduction of blood B-cells, protection of leukocytes attacked by bacteria). Here, TNF is linked to infection.