TNF and colitis: In addition, after DNBS-induced colitis, in rat colonic and small intestine LMMPs the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNFα, pro-IL1β and IL6, and of factors involved in active intestinal inflammation, such as HIF1α and VEGFα, are up-regulated, as observed along the rat gastrointestinal tract after trinitrobenzene sulfonic (TNBS) acid- and DNBS-induced colitis by other groups (Bakirtzi et al., 2014; Barada et al., 2006).