For therapeutics, the in vitro study on a RCC cell line showed that CD8+ T-cells stimulated by exosomes derived from RCC cells combined with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-12 exerted autologous anti-cancer effects (Xu et al., 2019). Here, CSF2 is linked to renal cell carcinoma.