1) Epigenetic silencing: By inserting into the upstream regulatory regions, particularly a promoter, a pseudogene may destroy its “landing site” and prevent host gene transcription, e.g., pseudogene protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 12 (PTPN12) inserts into the promoter region of MAX dimerization protein MGA (MGA), which acts as a potential lung cancer suppressor, to inactivate its expression and promote a malignant phenotype in NCI-H2009 cells 31. Here, PTPN12 is linked to lung carcinoma.