TNF and HIV infectious disease: It has been shown that HIV infection leads to an increase in the production of proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor, interleuking (IL)-1β, and IL-6, which can be partially reversed by ART (Amirayan-Chevillard et al., 2000; Kedzierska and Crowe, 2001), suggesting a possible indirect effect of ART on Plasmodium infection.