TNF and infection: The expression of IFN-γ and TNF-α may be considered important for the early protective innate immune response by the host to B. pseudomallei, but in chronic stages of infection in melioidosis, the expression of IFN-γ and TNF-α (as well as IL-1α and IL-1β) appears to be part of the immunopathology which occurs at this later stage of infection [48–54].