TNF and Parkinson disease: Previous studies revealed that TNF-α mediates signaling via various pathways such as JNK/IKKB (Inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase subunit beta), which is responsible for AD pathology [35], NF-κB/activator protein 1 (AP-1) for PD, TACE/SOD1 (Superoxide dismutase 1) for ALS, and caspases for HD [36].