We have evaluated the therapeutic potential of granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in animal models of PD, AD, and TBI (Kosloski et al., 2013; Kelso et al., 2015; Gendelman et al., 2017; Kiyota et al., 2018; Schutt et al., 2018) as well as in clinical trials in PD (Gendelman et al., 2017) (NCT03790670) and in AD by others (NCT01409915). This evidence concerns the gene CSF2 and Parkinson disease.