We have evaluated the therapeutic potential of granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in animal models of PD, AD, and TBI (Kosloski et al., 2013; Kelso et al., 2015; Gendelman et al., 2017; Kiyota et al., 2018; Schutt et al., 2018) as well as in clinical trials in PD (Gendelman et al., 2017) (NCT03790670) and in AD by others (NCT01409915). Here, CSF2 is linked to Alzheimer disease.