TNF and infection: Incubation of AaVA-1 in THP-1 cells did not influence the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-8, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), interferon-beta (IFN-β), interferon-alpha 2 (IFN-α2), IFN-α7 or macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α) (Supplementary Fig. 7), indicating that the AaVA-1-mediated enhancement of infection may not be attributed to the regulation of host immune responses.