TNF and Cognitive impairment: Wang et al. demonstrated that right carotid artery exposure induced apparent cognitive impairment in spatial learning and memory, as detected using the MWM test, and reduced freezing time in the FCS experiment, but did not impair locomotor activity in the OFT or attenuate the increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the hippocampus on Day 4 post-surgery in aged C57BL/6 J male mice [26].