The production of the specific cytokines interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), IL-1Ra, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and chemokines CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, and CXCL1 (known to be associated with aspergillosis [12, 13]) produced by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in the presence of the oligosaccharides was quantified (Fig. 3 and 4 and Text S3). Here, CCL2 is linked to aspergillosis.