Although increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6) due to obesity is a well-known mechanism associated with systemic chronic low-grade inflammation, reduced appetite, fatty liver disease, and insulin resistance in non-ruminants [52, 53], we did not detect differences in abundance of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL1B and IL6) between dietary treatments. Here, TNF is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.