TNF and malaria: Increased levels of TH1-associated cytokines, such as TNF-α and IFN-γ, are observed in the blood and tissues in different clinical presentations of malaria, suggesting pivotal roles played by these cytokines in protection against malaria in both rodent and human malaria (Hernandez-Valladares et al., 2006; Poovassery et al., 2009; Korner et al., 2010; Fauconnier et al., 2012).