Indeed, it is known that T. muris excretory/secretory (E/S) products induce NF-κB signalling in colonic epithelial cells shortly after infection, and the susceptible immune response to T. muris is associated with expression of the T helper (TH) 1 cytokines interferon (IFN)-γ, tumur necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-12.27 This response parallels the cytokines expressed after RAGE activation, which include TH1 and TH17 cytokines TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-12.16 Here, TNF is linked to infection.