Recent data implicating dysfunction of astrocytes and microglia in PD initiation and progression underscores the increasing importance of answering this question.31–33 Therefore, we systematically examined the activity of PINK1 in cultured primary neurons, astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) using both western analysis and immunofluorescence with antibodies specific for ubiquitin phosphorylated at S65 (pS65-Ub). The gene discussed is PINK1; the disease is Parkinson disease.