Furthermore, an elevated level of ROS can activate other mediators like phosphorylated-nuclear factor kappa B (p-NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), affecting the function of neuronal cells in the hippocampus via neuronal apoptosis and subsequently resulting in memory impairments. Here, TNF is linked to memory impairment.