TNF and atherosclerosis: Among them, interleukin 1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), IL-6, and monocyte chemokine protein 1 (MCP-1) are highly secreted and play major roles in atherosclerosis, VSMC dysfunctions, and inflammation of the arterial wall (Bobryshev et al., 2016) (see Table 1).