TNF and infection: As significant upsurge of inflammatory cytokines is evident for neuropathological and cytotoxic conditions during PCN033 infection [21], we subsequently tested the expression of those proinflammation cytokines and chemokines, including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and CCL2, in PCN033-challenged mice with or without mimic treatment, and found that the miR-19b-3p mimic pretreatment significantly aggravated the infection-induced inflammatory responses (Figure 5C).