NFKB1 and Insulin resistance: Indeed, stimulation of the NF-κB pathway has been reported to induce insulin resistance through both direct serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1/-2 mediated by IKKβ as well as the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which in turn activate serine kinases such as IKKβ and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) causing IRS inhibition, and induce other inflammation-related negative regulators of insulin signaling [10].