Mechanistic studies in IPF fibroblasts cultured under 3D macromolecular conditions [41] and in human IPF PCLuS [42] revealed that matrix production was regulated by a TGF-β1-mTORC1-4E-BP1 dependant, PI3K independent, signalling axis. Here, TGFB1 is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.