CSF2 and acute pyelonephritis: GM-CSF is frequently expressed during inflammation to regulate myeloid cell numbers, and has little effect on embryonic development and hematopoiesis.17,29,52 In our study, GM-CSF neutralization using anti-GM-CSF antibody attenuated acute kidney injury caused by HlyA-positive UPEC strains, indicating that anti-GM-CSF therapy has the potential to treat serious acute pyelonephritis.