CSF2 and cancer: Although vaccine-induced antibodies specific for proteins such as growth factor receptors may have an impact on cancer cell signaling and limit tumor growth, CD8+ and T-helper 1 (Th1) cells secreting inflammatory cytokines are needed for tumor destruction.58 The administration of vaccine adjuvants like granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), IL-2 or T-cell costimulatory molecules may help to augment the immune response, including the recruitment of more DCs, CD8+, and Th1 cells to the TME.