However, plasma TGF-β level was not significantly different between co-infection (1922 pg/ml) and mono-infection of either HAT or malaria (P = 0.7494 or P = 0.2058) respectively (Fig. 4e) (Kruskal–Wallis, Dunn’s multiple comparisons test, P < 0.05). Here, TGFB1 is linked to malaria.