Genes involved in spermatogenesis, such as PIWIL2, CAPN11, UBQLN3, GGN, SPATA3, SPACA4, SPATS1, and protamines PRM1 and PRM2 were significantly downregulated in patients with CAIS compared to men with normal spermatogenesis (Figure 6). Here, GGN is linked to complete androgen insensitivity syndrome.